Diabetes encompasses a spectrum of metabolic disorders, ranging from type 1 diabetes (T1D) to type 2 diabetes (T2D). Regardless of their diverse etiologies, late-stage diabetes depends on exogenous insulin injections due to a significant loss of insulin-producing beta cells. While insulin replacement therapy remains the cornerstone of treatment for insulin-dependent diabetes, in cases of severe beta cell loss, exogenous insulin administration alone is insufficient to maintain euglycemic and prevent complications.

 

The current last-resort treatment for diabetes is pancreas transplantation, but it faces limitations due to the scarcity of donor organs and the requirement for immunosuppression.

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Emerging treatments include stem cell transplants, regeneration pharmacotherapies, and artificial pancreas systems. These approaches encounter challenges such as the risks of recurring autoimmune destruction, abnormal cell growth, off-target toxicity, temporary efficacy and suboptimal glycemic control.

             

The pursuit of safe and effective treatments for insulin-dependent diabetes remains a major challenge.